Anderson, Benedict. Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and the Spread of   

Nationalism. London: Verso-Left, 2006.

Benedict Anderson is a professor of international studies at Cornell University. Anderson is often called a modernist due to his belief that nationalism did not exist prior to the 18^th century. Anderson’s main thesis is that the nation is a socially constructed idea. He states that media outlets play a vital role in the construction and definition of nations. More precisely, Anderson believes that media are not merely “mirrors” or “instruments” of nations -- rather they themselves are helping in the creation of nations.

Anderson asserts that there is no scientific definition of the word "nation." He further believes that nationalism is not an ideology. According to Anderson, nationalism should be grouped in with the concepts of kinship and religion (instead of liberalism or fascism). He states that nations are limited “imagined communities,” because people who belong to a nation simply do not know each fellow member of that nation. Anderson goes as far as to say that, “in fact, all communities larger than primordial villages of face-to face contact (and perhaps even those) are imagined" (Anderson 6). To be more precise, people have to feel connected to a country by their shared history, cultural roots, religion, look, their understanding of combined symbols and shared media consumption. But most of all people have to share at least some of the same believe systems. If they don’t then the imagined community will fail. 

The author further states that newspapers contribute to people’s sense of nationalism. He cites the philosopher Hegel who describes the newspaper as a substitute for the Morning Prayer. Anderson writes that newspapers (like the New York Times) report about events and tragedies from all over the world. The only link observed by the author is the date on the paper. The daily newspaper creates a sense of community that readers can enjoy in the privacy of their homes -- without ever coming into contact with other newspaper consumers or the individuals (or groups) mentioned in the paper. The author claims that nationalism was created by (or served as) the replacement of religious or political systems. Western Europe in the 18^th century was ruled by religious policies. He believes that nationalism grew out of the replacement of these sets of laws by the secularizing thought of the Enlightenment. 

               After holy languages (such as Latin and Hebrew) lost their dominance over the churches and its religious followers, communities became more fragmented. The author contends that once people lost their belief in sacred and divine rulers, they searched for new links to power, brotherhood, and time. Anderson even writes that the new sense of nationalism provided people with a new meaning for their misfortunes and losses. Nevertheless a void has still been felt: religion (unlike Marxism or even nationalism) answered people's questions on human suffering (i.e. "Why is my daughter blind?" "Why was I stricken with polio?").

The book also stresses that capitalism made people think of themselves and their world in a new fashion. According to Anderson, the get-together of capitalism and print technology set the stage for the modern nation. He assesses that one of the first capitalistic endeavors was publishing. Anderson finds that print-languages laid the groundwork for communication for people who speak or understand the same language. He suggests that Creole people who spoke the same language and their economic interests created the systems of nations that we know today. Imagined Communities states that Creole officials and print men were main dynamic force responsible for the creation of imagined communities.

An important aspect of print-captialism was its ability to consolidate languages. In the interest of monetary profits, publishers selected a few popular vernaculars. Literate people would gravitate toward these languages in order to consume mass-produced novels and newspapers. This created a common conversational currency; and provided the background necessary for "imagined communities" to take shape. 

 In the 19^th century the representation of the independent state existed and was available for reproduction all over the world, according to Anderson. Capitalism was spreading fast, as Kaiser Wilhelm II, the grandchild of empress Victoria of India, fought against international socialism and against a revolution. Anderson determines that Steson-Waton coined the term official nationalism in Europe. The author proposes it was then, in the 19^th century, when self-defense was now thought of in national terms.

Anderson finds that industrial capitalism made global imperialism. He observes the rapid Russification of the extra European-colonies. The author points out that the nation state was now the leading imagined community model, replacing even the once formidable Portuguese Empire. He proposes that the colonial state developed into a nation state because many people were able to travel with fewer restrictions due to technological advances (such as trains and steam ships). The book illustrates that the colonial state needed a great number of bilingual officials to serve both the metropolitan and the colonized nations. The text also records the spread of a modern style of education, which was fueled by religious institutions. Governments acknowledged the importance of education and the colonial sate invited locals to attend schools.

Imagined Communities suggests that print-capitalism midwifed the creation of nationalism. The author questions if the educational system in India can sincerely educate people in two languages. He further finds that print capitalism standardized the dialect in poor and rural Switzerland before World War II. Anderson assesses that nationalism arrived very late in Switzerland. He cites Hughes, who dates Swiss nationalism to 1891.

Anderson observes the link between patriotism and the national anthem. He describes the national anthem as a connection through imagined words and lyrics. The author suggests, “nationalism thinks in terms of historical destinies, while racism dreams of eternal contamination (Anderson 149).” Hence, he believes the idea of racism comes from class conflicts rather than nationalism.

Anderson claims that Vietnam in the 1930s and Cambodia in the 1960s were not filled with an educated elite. However, according to the author they were able to unite to plan a revolution and they were informed enough to imagine a nation together. Consequently, Anderson stresses the importance of leadership. He implies that leadership created the imagined communities in China, Vietnam and Cambodia. He also believes that previous revolutions (i.e. the American Revolution and the French Revolution) provided a template for subsequent revolutions. This can also be attributed to the rise of print-capitalism -- which allowed (someone like) Vietnam's Ho Chi Minh the opportunity to model "his" own revolution after a previous one (ironically the American Revolution) through the consumption of historical texts. 

The censuses and European-style maps were used for the complete categorization of people’s regions and languages; this acceded to revolutionary consequences. Anderson proposes that ancient maps tried to predict reality instead of telling it.  Anderson writes that British colonial maps assigned different colors to colonies, making them resemble jigsaw puzzles. 

Imagined Communities details the political power of museums. The author reports that Arnold Ap (the manager and spokesman of a West Papuan museum) was murdered by the ruling Indonesian Government for stressing the importance of Papuan culture (which Indonesia viewed as a threat -- possibly sparking a West Papuan independence movement). Anderson stresses the importance of archeology for nations. He concludes that museums, maps and the census suggest the colonial state's thinking.

Anderson proposes that European settlers in America saw themselves and their way of life as similar and equivalent to their country of origin.  He contends that the Constitution of the United States of America was considered of universal truth and value in the Republic of Venezuela, which consequently adapted it.

The book sheds light on the concept of people who are willing to live and die for their "imagined communities." Anderson gives a solid theory of the proposed history of nationalism. However, the date of 1891, which he established for Swiss nationalism could be questioned. There is ample historical evidence of Swiss nationalism in the 14^th century. Switzerland successfully fought of a Harbsburg invasion in the 14^th century. Even today Swiss sagas talk about a mystical historical figure called Wilhelm Tell, who is called a national hero. Consequently, one might argue that nationalism comes in waves. It is strongest in time of crisis and when people are uniting against a common enemy.(Reviewed by Julia R. Joest)